Free Essays on Cosmogony

Cosmology: Science vs Religion In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Christian belief encountered significant opposition. Until then, most of the world shared the belief of the â€Å"Medieval world view† that not only was the earth positioned at the center of the universe, but that God was all knowing, all powerful and all good. God was thought to have created and sustained the wondrous workings of the universe. This belief told the people all they needed to know about the meaning and purpose of life. Then, scientific discovery and methods began to undermine religious beliefs. Scientists began to reveal that natural laws and natural forces governed the world. Opposing beliefs, e.g. the Marxism belief, criticized Christian views. People like, Bacon, Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton all played significant roles in challenging the recognized views at that time. In contrast to the â€Å"medieval world view†, the â€Å"scientific universe† is impersonal, governed by natural laws and understandable in physical and mathematical terms. Many people trust the information science offers rather than religion because science seems to be more reliable. Science has replaced religion as the dominant intellectual authority because science offers the chance to understand the universe, whereas religion just assumes things. Many believe, as was said by Richard Dawkins, â€Å"the truth means scientific truth†. Along with the logical Positivists, they claimed the only meaningful statements were scientific. It is unfortunate that such a view is seen by so many as it takes more than one view to understand the universe fully. Non-religious philosopher, Bertrand Russell, once quoted another example of the narrow-minded view non-Christians seem to share, he once said, â€Å"What science cannot discover, mankind cannot know†. Although sc ience explains much about life and the universe, some people choose to believe religion. One major reason for the ... Free Essays on Cosmogony Free Essays on Cosmogony Cosmology: Science vs Religion In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Christian belief encountered significant opposition. Until then, most of the world shared the belief of the â€Å"Medieval world view† that not only was the earth positioned at the center of the universe, but that God was all knowing, all powerful and all good. God was thought to have created and sustained the wondrous workings of the universe. This belief told the people all they needed to know about the meaning and purpose of life. Then, scientific discovery and methods began to undermine religious beliefs. Scientists began to reveal that natural laws and natural forces governed the world. Opposing beliefs, e.g. the Marxism belief, criticized Christian views. People like, Bacon, Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton all played significant roles in challenging the recognized views at that time. In contrast to the â€Å"medieval world view†, the â€Å"scientific universe† is impersonal, governed by natural laws and understandable in physical and mathematical terms. Many people trust the information science offers rather than religion because science seems to be more reliable. Science has replaced religion as the dominant intellectual authority because science offers the chance to understand the universe, whereas religion just assumes things. Many believe, as was said by Richard Dawkins, â€Å"the truth means scientific truth†. Along with the logical Positivists, they claimed the only meaningful statements were scientific. It is unfortunate that such a view is seen by so many as it takes more than one view to understand the universe fully. Non-religious philosopher, Bertrand Russell, once quoted another example of the narrow-minded view non-Christians seem to share, he once said, â€Å"What science cannot discover, mankind cannot know†. Although sc ience explains much about life and the universe, some people choose to believe religion. One major reason for the ...

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Proposal for a dessrtation about (Company analysis and valuation) Essay

Proposal for a dessrtation about (Company analysis and valuation) - Essay Example 1.6.3 Sampling Technique Due to the nature of data to be collected, which are mostly secondary data, there shall not be any sampling techniques in place. Rather, the researcher shall use purposive sampling technique to select four petrochemical companies as well as to select the sources of data. Purposive sampling is when the researcher selects participants according to his discretion. It is a non-probability sampling technique. It will be useful in this situation to give the researcher access to his preferred companies and sources that he deems contain the most appropriate data he wants to work on. 1.6.4 Data Analysis There shall be both qualitative and quantitative data analysis of data collected. Quantitatively, figures from documents and websites shall be analyzed using tables, cross tabulation, percentages, pie charts and bar charts. There shall also be qualitative data analysis of the discretional views and interpretations made by the research on the data collected about the fo ur companies. Editing Process 1.6.2 Types and Sources of Data The major type of data to be collected will be valid and official financial statistics and statements of the companies. These shall be sampled from sources such as audit reports, financial statement, financial reports, error logs, and business plans of the companies. Useful and authentic internet websites such as websites of the World Bank, IMF and other authoritative business sites such as MarketLine and Global Insight shall be used. Because the researcher may not have direct interaction with the companies because they are spread abroad, he shall use financial database such as Euromonitor, Datamonitor, Datastream and OSIRIS to gather official data about the companies. 1.6.3 Sampling Technique Due to the nature of data to be collected, which are mostly secondary data, there shall not be any sampling techniques in place. Rather, the researcher shall use purposive sampling technique to select four petrochemical companies as well as to select the sources of data. Purposive sampling is when the researcher selects participants according to his discretion. It is a non-probability sampling technique. It will be useful in this situation to give the researcher access to his preferred companies and sources that he deems contain the most appropriate data he wants to work on. 1.6.4 Data Analysis There shall be both qualitative and quantitative data analysis of data collected. Quantitatively, figures from documents and websites shall be analyzed using tables, cross tabulation, percentages, pie charts and bar charts. There shall also be qualitative data analysis of the discretional views and interpretations made by the research on the data collected about the four companies.

Reading Educational Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Reading Educational Research - Essay Example According to Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, p 167), there are clear distinctions between the two gender identities: Femininities and Masculinities. It is in this regard that a qualitative methodology is applied to research and bring out these differences. More significantly, the implication of the differences in gender identities on the society and the behavior of the youth are described by the authors. It is argued by qualitative researchers that a methodological approach is an effective way of investigating and describing differences between people (Silverman, 2004, p. 59). It is in relation to this argument that Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, p 173) have focused in two major areas in their article. Firstly, the events in which young women participate in as compared to the male counterparts. Secondly the authors reflect on the social environment in general with an aim of demonstrating the views of the society on gender identities and gender roles. Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, p 170) employ theoretical perspectives and resources to interpret the data of the qualitative study. It is argued that a theoretical framework is used to add credibility to the discussion of research findings especially when a qualitative methodology is used to describe a social issue (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p. 9). The theoretical framework employed by the authors in their discussion is that of feminism. The authors describe the various categorization of feminism such as hetero-normative sexuality, heterosexual femininities and hyper femininity. Through the theoretical framework and research findings, the authors present the reader with three main arguments as described in the following sentences. Firstly, the disengagement of working class girls from schooling is mediated by the manner in which they construct hetero-femininities. Secondly, Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, p 169) point out that the ethnic diversity among inner city girls construct the capital which they acquire as a way through which they would generate self worth, identity and value. Lastly, the authors explain the reasons why the young girls invest more on glamorous appearance. According to Skeggs (1997, p. 124), identities are constructed through cultural and social theory. Skeggs (1997) discusses gender, class and culture in relation to feminism and argues that theoretical view of these issues in an effective approach for deeper understanding. It is therefore evident that Skeggs (1997, p. 145) presents arguments that are congruent with the postulates of Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, p. p 176). This is exemplified by reflection that the modern society is characterized by changing power relations and gender roles. Skeggs (1997) further explains that gender and class should be fused so that the representation of power relations in the society can be understood fully. Nonetheless the information that is presented by Skeggs (1997, p. 170) is based on an ethnographic research. This author uses the works of Pierre Bourdieu and the feminist theory to describe the position that is occupied by the female gender within the modern society. The ethnography of gender and class helps in understanding the differences between the two gender identities within a school social environment. According to Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, p 178), the working class gir

Review of related literature Essay Example for Free

Review of related literature Essay This chapter covers a review of related literature which is pertinent to the study. The literature reviewed here provides three different but equally relevant insights on how to approach benefits realization. A. Literature Review The Continuing Role of IS The study Show Me the Money: Advanced Practices in Benefits Realization (2005), by Dave Aron, Chuck Tucker, and Richard Hunter, is a piece of related literature that is particularly relevant to the present research paper. Aron et al.’s work provides for a comprehensive analysis of the benefits realization life cycle, and provides for five key characteristics for effective benefits realization. Show Me the Money discusses how the benefits realization life cycle should actually be divided into three phases: 1) planning; 2) execution; and 3) harvesting. Advanced practices, according to Aron et al. , lead to increased business benefits, higher IS credibility, and improved learning which can be applied to an organization’s subsequent projects. An organization should focus on participating fully on each of the three cycles. The focus on benefits planning allows an organization’s portfolio to be maximized in terms of benefits potential. The work for the organization’s IS does not stop at the execution stage of benefits realization, but must continue on until the harvesting phase in order to optimize benefits. In Table 1 below, the advanced practices for each phase of the benefits realization life cycle is outlined by Aron et al. : Table 1. Advanced Practices in the Benefits Realization Process Source: Aron, Dave, Chuck Tucker, Richard Hunter. (December 2005). Show Me the Money: Advanced Practices in Benefits Realization. http://www. gartner. com/DisplayDocument? doc_cd=137020 The significant difference between basic practices and advanced practices in benefits realization, as seen in Table, shows the continued participation of IS in each and every stage of the cycle. During execution, in the advanced practices row, in particular, IS should contribute to change management. This means that information services’ role do not stop after delivery of the technology. The practices outlined in Table 1 can be summed up in the five characteristics for an effective benefits realization program as provided by Aron et al. in their research: Benefits realization is an end-to-end discipline The business should focus on the benefits life cycle. The organization should expand its focus from the systems development life cycle in order to enhance IS contribution to change management. Some factors to consider (Aron, Tucker Hunter, 2005): Benefits realization is a persistent need of every organization. ? Shifting IT portfolios make the benefits realization challenge even more pressing. ? Improving benefits realization goes hand in hand with closer business alignment. ? Benefits of IT-intensive initiatives are realized through three phases (planning, execution, and harvesting) ? Advanced practices deliver optimum benefits realization. ? Planning practices lay the foundation Benefits-focused planning will make sure that an organization’s portfolio is maximized regarding benefits potential. Advanced practices should include: use of benefits framework to define benefits; build results chains to identify all the activities needed; integrate benefits into management processes; synchronize all stakeholders around benefits commitments; make benefits coaching a part of the governance team’s role (Aron, Tucker Hunter, 2005). ? Execution practices get the business ready IS execution should involve helping the organization to get ready for change in terms of process, culture, and addressing issues that arise. Focus however should remain on the end results or benefits the organization wants to achieve, with IS continuing to contribute to its implementation beyond delivery of the technology. Some recommendations provided by the Show Me the Money study on this are include: providing support to the organization with change management capabilities; use of empowered problem-solving teams; and adapting project governance in response to issues (Aron, Tucker Hunter, 2005). Harvesting practices ensure that expected benefits are reaped The role of IS should not stop after execution and implementation of the benefits realization program. It should continue on to what Aron et al. have coined as the â€Å"harvesting† phase. This phase involves measuring the benefits that the project is expected to achieve. The organization, business and IS alike, must: manage the entire harvesting phase; run benefits-focused post-implementation reviews; evolve the project governance team into a harvesting steering group; and conduct an independent harvesting audit (Aron, Tucker Hunter, 2005). In this way, the benefits may be quantified, measured, and valued. At the same time, IS and business learning must be analysed and reviewed at this phase. Evaluate and improve benefits realization practices The organization will have a better understanding IS contribution to benefits and how to improve such contribution when they evaluate its benefits realization practices. An understanding of the organization’s benefits realization readiness, an evaluation of its benefits realization risk, and implementation of benefits-focused pre- and post-implementation review tools will result in better business benefits, higher IS credibility, and improved learning for the entire organization (Aron, Tucker Hunter, 2005). In sum, Aron et al’s critical analysis seeks to redefine and emphasize the role of IS in benefits realization. That role should not be limited to the planning and execution stage but must continue on to the harvesting phase. This analysis is in keeping with the â€Å"concept-to-cash† framework of an ideal and effective benefits realization process. In such a framework, Show Me the Money reminds us, IS, and not just business, plays an important role from start to finish.

Trials and Tribulations of Ariel Dorfman :: Essays Papers

Trials and Tribulations of Ariel Dorfman In the late 1950’s Chile was fighting a political war. Ariel Dorfman wrote many stories and essays dealing with the political oppression. Ariel Dorfman was exiled from Chile because of his writings, and struggled with his writing in Paris. With ambitions to return to his country he became one of the most significant Hispanic writers in the 20th century. Chile was going through a time of change. After the death of President Salvador Allende, Augusto Pinochet took over. Ariel worked for Allende and wrote many not so nice things about Pinochet. In 1973 Pinochet didn’t fire Dorfman, instead he just exiled Ariel from the country. After being exiled Dorfman went to Paris he came down with a case of writers block, which left him poor for a while. He eventually recovered and wrote many famous plays and poems. In one of his poems â€Å"He describes Latin America as an enigma a vibrant, sprawling, messy reality which did not itself know where it was or where it was going†¦a series of half-formed nations trapped in a history not of its own, trying to invent an alternative.† (Former Exiled Writer â€Å"Dorfman† 21) Born on May 6, 1942 in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Dorfman’s family was well aware of the horrors of war and the pain of exile, his Jewish grandparents fled the pogroms of Eastern Europe. At the age of two his family moved to New York City and he attended grade school there. When he was seven he began writing children’s fiction. He also expressed himself through painting. At the age of twelve he and his family moved to Chile where he completed his education, married, and in 1967 became a naturalized Chilean citizen. He attended graduate school in Berkley California in 1968 and 1969 and then he returned to Chile. As an adult Dorfman worked as an activist, journalist and writer. Dorfman actively protested against political oppression in Chile. When Chile’s democratically elected Allende and his Marxist government were overthrown in a coup by Augusto Pinochet in 1973 he found himself in opposition to those in power. Following Allende’s death, thousands of politicians, intellectuals, clergymen and writers, of which Dorfman was one, were expelled from Chile. Many famous and significant writings came from Dorfman. His writings include Windows, his Memoir Heading South Looking North: A Bilingual Journey, Death and the Maiden, along with many short stories and poems.

Panera Bread Case

These locations enable them to service both the shopping customer base, but also the equines base co-located In these high traffic areas. Their vision is one that their customers will love freshness of their products and the tastiness of their offerings to the degree that they will be driven to visit their stores repeatedly and often. Pander believes that the values they provide their customers are: creating wholesome healthy foods, maintaining affordable prices, to always innovate, and respect for both customers and employees.Bread is a staple of life and Pander believes that by them enhancing the flavors menu offerings around bread, then they will increase their ease market for baked goods served by Pander outlets and franchises. As a customer of Pander, I can tell you that their product offerings are so flavors that they are a strength to their business. There are two areas where the slogan or vision appear to deviate from the text; 1) overly broad language; and 2) rather generic. That said, we are talking about bread; and bread is the single most important staple for human life, next to rice.It works. One of Pander's strategic objectives is to expand their product line, creating further distance between them and their rivals, and to increase heir sales In foreign markets. They will achieve that strategic objective as a result of continued Investment and focus In five key business areas: 1) the quality of their food, 2) their increased marketing expenditures, 3) the roller of their Napery loyalty program, 4) the growth of their catering business, and 5) the quality of their operations and their people.We believe that success in these five areas will place Pander at the top of the list of the very best companies in our industry; and are a direct result of continued Investment in the quality of our customers' experience to alp drive product differentiation and thus provide Pander a completive advantage among Its peers. The Investments that were made over the l ast three years have driven Pander's results in 2011 and they believe the investments that were made in 2011 position them well for the future. Item 2: The company financial objective is to have long-term operating earnings growth target of 12-17% per year.In 2011, Pander had a very good year. Their Earnings per Share (PEPS) grew 28%. This was their fourth consecutive year that their PEPS has rowan 24% or greater; which Is above the upper end of their long-term earnings growth target. Their performance in 2011 was driven both by their strong operating performance as well as their ability to generate PEPS growth through deployment of their excess capital. Earnings growth of approximately 20% was driven by core operations, which was above their long-term operating earnings growth target of 12-17%.Additionally, an Incremental 8% earnings growth was driven by the more their ability to grow their bakery-cafe sales. In 2011, their Company-owned bakery- cafe sales increased 4. % vs.. 2010, and rose to 12. 4% on a two-year basis. They also celebrated the opening of their 1,50th store, nationwide. This, coupled with their debt free position, they believe these results will put them among the very best in their industry and are a direct result of continued investment in the quality of their customers' experience to drive product differentiation and competitive advantage.The investments that they have made over the last few years drove their results in 2011 and they believe the investments that they made in 2011 position them well for the future. Item 3 & 4 NOT SHOWN Item 5: This is a good example of sales, earnings and balance sheet analysis. It is missing the same store analysis and franchise versus owned stores analysis The net income for Pander Bread has increased from the third quarter of 2011 to the third quarter of 2012 by 22% or $36. MM. The Administration expense is up $MM. This is something we will continue to manage along with their asset growth.Total assets a re up by $MM in 2011. Return on Equity was 20%, which is 3% above the high end of their range of 12-17%. The Return on Invested Capital (ROCCO) is 5. % which is up from 4. 8% from the previous year. Inventory turnover when compared to the industry is really tremendous. Their inventory turnover ratio was 95. 5 as compared to the industry 6. 5. The sales growth has grown from 2010 being 6. 29% quarterly to 15. 79% quarterly in 2012. This shows a very strong growth in sales year over year and ties well to their strategy of growing sales within their market areas. It shows a strong demand for their product.The balance sheet for Pander is solid, in that they have 1,027,322 in total assets and only 372,246 million in total liabilities. They are basically debt free. They are showing year over year improvement in assets, liabilities, stockholder equity, revenues, and both company operated and franchise stores as well as the number of company owned and franchised Pander's opening every year. Earnings per share have risen from 0. 98 to 1. 25 over the last 12 months. Although system statewide revenue has increased every year since 2002 their sales growth has been erratic. For 2006-2007 there was an 18. 17% growth in sales revenue.From 2007-2008 revenue slowed to 16. 34% growth, before falling all the way to 5. 45%. It should be noted between 2009-2010 sales growth picked up to 1 1. 8%, indicating a possible upward trajectory after faltering during the recession. This is evidence off well-run, well-managed company. From all indications, their strategy appears to be working in quarter over quarter sales improvements. Items 6 and 7: Pander Bread's Value Chain consists of Inbound Logistics – Pander Dough Supplier, Other Supplier Management, Manufacturing – Franchise and Store-owned Cafes, Catering, R&D – Product Research and Development and Marketing.Each franchisee purchases dough directly from Pander Bread. Pander has an interest in each of the franchi sed stores succeeding because the company received 4%-5% royalties from sales continually. This means that Pander, as the supplier, has an interest to keep prices of dough as low as possible to maintain viable franchise operations. Outbound logistics – each franchisee purchases dough directly from The fresh dough is sold to both company-owned and franchised bakery-cafes at a delivered cost not to exceed 27% of the retail value of the product.These costs margins are achieved by producing the dough at central locations while employing economies of scale. Pander provides comprehensive house training, market analysis, and bakery-cafe certification. This corporate level tactic impacts the company's franchised and company owned stores by enabling Pander to develop systems used by all the cafes thus applying operational economies of scale. Since each cafe-bakery does not have to develop its own operations structure this reduces costs for each store. All the cafes offered an assortme nt of 20-plus varieties of bread baked daily and as of 2006 at least 22 types of sandwiches.Each of these breads and indices were regularly reviewed by the Marketing group to determine whether the products matched regular customer needs, new consumer trends, and seasonal relevance. The complexity of the product line enables Pander to match menu items with a variety of customer needs. This process ensured that weak selling items would be removed thus limiting excess inventory. Pander's Marketing is using focus groups to determine customer food and drink preferences, and price points. This work is done by only a few individuals at the corporate level and scaled to the rest of he cafes.The existing company and franchise owned cafes would be able to take advantage of this market information and subsequently reduce costs associated with sales and marketing information. Involving Pander's research and development new menu items were rolled out in limited cafes and developed in test kitche ns prior to nationwide release. This process addressed two cost drivers. First, by employing economies of scale, individual cafes will not have to spend resources and capital investing in the development of new menu items.Second, through the expertise of he advanced research and development department Pander ensures both quality of product and process. This will result in less product waste and increased customer satisfaction and in turn lowered costs. Pander Bread utilizes both structural and execution cost drivers to lower costs on the value chain particularly in inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, sales and marketing, and research and development. Their cost reduction across their value chain gives Pander a strong competitive advantage. Pander pursues continuous quality improvements in separate ways.They are well known for their after sale service. They are known for contacting customers who leave complaints offering them anything from coupons to free meals when th eir service is not up to par. Their high customer retention rate lends one to believe that they are also making improvements based on customer reviews. Their emphasis on marketing allows them to introduce new products that succeed because they are attached to the brand. An example of this would be their recent success with parfaits. They have also redesigned their stores over the years to make them more aesthetically pleasing, further building their own brand.

Reading Strategy Essay

What Is It? To aid their comprehension, skillful readers ask themselves questions before, during, and after they read. You can help students become more proficient by modeling this process for them and encouraging them to use it when they read independently. Why Is It Important? Dolores Durkin’s research in 1979 showed that most teachers asked students questions after they had read, as opposed to questioning to improve comprehension before or while they read. In the late 1990s, further research (Pressley, et al.1998) Revealed that despite the abundance of research supporting questioning before, during, and after reading to help comprehension, teachers still favored post-reading comprehension questions. Researchers have also found that when adult readers are asked to â€Å"think aloud† as they read, they employ a wide variety of comprehension strategies, including asking and answering questions before, during, and after reading (Pressley and Afflerbach 1995). Proficient adult readers: Are aware of why they are reading the text Preview and make predictions Read selectively Make connections and associations with the text based on what they already know. Refine predictions and expectations Use context to identify unfamiliar words Reread and make notes Evaluate the quality of the text Review important points in the text Consider how the information might be used in the future Successful reading is not simply the mechanical process of â€Å"decoding† text. Rather, it is a process of active inquiry. Good readers approach a text with questions and develop new questions as they read, for example: â€Å"What is this story about? † â€Å"What does the main character want? † â€Å"Will she get it? † â€Å"If so, how? † Even after reading, engaged readers still ask questions: â€Å"What is the meaning of what I have read? † â€Å"Why did the author end the paragraph (or chapter, or book) in this way? † â€Å"What was the author’s purpose in writing this? † Good authors anticipate the reader’s questions and plant questions in the reader’s mind (think of a title such as, Are You My Mother? by P. D. Eastman). In this way, reading becomes a collaboration between the reader and the author. The author’s job is to raise questions and then answer them – or provide several possible answers. Readers cooperate by asking the right questions, paying careful attention to the author’s answers, and asking questions of their own. HOW CAN YOU MAKE IT HAPPEN? To help readers learn to ask questions before, during, and after reading, think aloud the next time you are reading a book, article, or set of directions. Write each question on a post-it note and stick it on the text you have the question about. You may be surprised at how many typically unspoken questions you ponder, ask, and answer as you read. You may wonder as you read or after you read at the author’s choice of title, at a vocabulary word, or about how you will use this information in the future. You should begin to model these kinds of questions in the primary grades during read-aloud times, when you can say out loud what you are thinking and asking. Read a book or text to the class, and model your thinking and questioning. Emphasize that even though you are an adult reader, questions before, during, and after reading continue to help you gain an understanding of the text you are reading. Ask questions such as: â€Å"What clues does the title give me about the story? † â€Å"Is this a real or imaginary story? † â€Å"Why am I reading this? † â€Å"What do I already know about___? † â€Å"What predictions can I make? â€Å" Pre-select several stopping points within the text to ask and answer reading questions. Stopping points should not be so frequent that they hinder comprehension or fluid reading of a text. This is also an excellent time to model â€Å"repair strategies† to correct miscomprehension. Start reading the text, and ask yourself questions while reading: â€Å"What do I understand from what I just read? † â€Å"What is the main idea? † â€Å"What picture is the author painting in my head? † â€Å"Do I need to reread so that I understand? † Then reread the text, asking the following questions when you are finished: â€Å"Which of my predictions were right? What information from the text tells me that I am correct? † â€Å"What were the main ideas? † â€Å"What connections can I make to the text? How do I feel about it? † Encourage students to ask their own questions after you have modeled this strategy, and write all their questions on chart paper. Students can be grouped to answer one another’s questions and generate new ones based on discussions. Be sure the focus is not on finding the correct answers, because many questions may be subjective, but on curiosity, wondering, and asking thoughtful questions. After students become aware of the best times to ask questions during the reading process, be sure to ask them a variety of questions that: Can be used to gain a deeper understanding of the text Have answers that might be different for everyone Have answers that can be found in the text Clarify the author’s intent Can help clarify meaning Help them make inferences Help them make predictions Help them make connections to other texts or prior knowledge As students begin to read text independently, you should continue to model the questioning process and encourage students to use it often. In the upper elementary and middle school grades, a framework for questions to ask before, during, and after reading can serve as a guide as students work with more challenging texts and begin to internalize comprehension strategies. You can use an overhead projector to jot notes on the framework as you â€Å"think aloud† while reading a text. As students become comfortable with the questioning strategy, they may use the guide independently while reading, with the goal of generating questions before, during, and after reading to increase comprehension. How Can You Stretch Students’ Thinking? The best way to stretch students’ thinking about a text is to help them ask increasingly challenging questions. Some of the most challenging questions are â€Å"Why? † questions about the author’s intentions and the design of the text. For example: â€Å"Why do you think the author chose this particular setting? † â€Å"Why do you think the author ended the story in this way? † â€Å"Why do you think the author chose to tell the story from the point of view of the daughter? † â€Å"What does the author seem to be assuming about the reader’s political beliefs? † Another way to challenge readers is to ask them open-ended question that require evidence from the text to answer. For example: â€Å"What does Huck think about girls? What is your evidence? † â€Å"Which character in the story is most unlike Anna? Explain your reasons, based on evidence from the novel? † â€Å"What is the author’s opinion about affirmative action in higher education? How do you know? † Be sure to explicitly model your own challenging questions while reading aloud a variety of texts, including novels, subject-area textbooks, articles, and nonfiction. Help students see that answering challenging questions can help them understand text at a deeper level, ultimately making reading a more enjoyable and valuable experience. As students become proficient in generating challenging questions, have them group the questions the time they were asked (before, during or after reading). Students can determine their own categories, justify their reasons for placing questions into the categories, and determine how this can help their reading comprehension. When Can You Use It? Reading/English Students who have similar interests can read the same text and meet to discuss their thoughts in a book club. Members can be given a set of sticky notes to mark questions they have before, during, and after reading the text. Members can then share their question with one another to clarify understanding within their group. Since students’ reading level may not necessarily determine which book club they choose to join, accommodations may need to be made, including buddy reading, audio recordings of the text, or the use of computer-aided reading systems. Writing  Good writers anticipate their readers’ questions. Have students jot down the questions they will attempt to answer in an essay or short story before they write it, in the order that they plan to answer them. Stress that this should not be a mechanical process – as students write they probably will think of additional questions to ask and answer. The key point is to have students think of themselves as having a conversation with the reader – and a big part of this is knowing what questions the reader is likely to ask. Math Students can ask questions before, during, and after solving a math problem. Have students think aloud or write in groups to generate questions to complete performance tasks related to mathematics. Social Studies Use before, during, and after questions when beginning a new chapter or unit of study in any social studies topic. Select a piece of text, and have students generate questions related to the topic. At the end of the unit of study, refer back to the questions and discuss how the questions helped students to understand the content. Science Use before, during, and after questions to review an article or science text. You can discuss articles related to a recent scientific discovery with students and then generate questions that would help them to focus their attention on important information. Lesson Plans Lesson Plan: Questioning, The Mitten This lesson is designed to introduce primary students to the importance of asking questions before, during, and after listening to a story. In this lesson, using the story The Mitten by Jan Brett, students learn how to become good readers by asking questions. This is the first lesson in a set of questioning lessons designed for primary grades. Lesson Plan: Questioning, Grandfather’s Journey. This lesson is for intermediate students using the strategy with the book, Grandfather’s Journey, by Allen Say. Lesson Plan: Questioning, Koko’s Kitten This lesson is designed to establish primary students’ skills in asking questions before, during, and after they listen to a story. You can help students learn to become better readers by modeling how and when you ask questions while reading aloud the true story, Koko’s Kitten, by Dr. Francine Patterson. This is the second lesson in a set of questioning lessons designed for primary grades. Lesson Plan: Asking Pre-Reading Questions This is a language arts lesson for students in grades 3-5. Students will learn about asking questions before reading and will make predictions based on the discussion of the questions. Lesson Plan: Asking Questions When Reading In this lesson, the teacher will read The Wall by Eve Bunting with the purpose of focusing on asking important questions. The students and the teacher will then categorize the questions according to the criteria for each.  © 2000-2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Original URL: http://www. teachervision. fen. com/lesson-plan/reading-comprehension/48698. html Asking Questions When Reading Grade Levels: 4 – 8 Lesson Summary. Generating questions plays a key role in the process of learning how to read, and then again in learning how to read better. There are so many question that students may have about the text that they encounter – questions about the author’s style or purpose, questions about new vocabulary, questions about what might happen, etc. Students need to first begin to feel comfortable asking questions, then learn to ask the vital questions that will direct their focus and clear up confusion. In this lesson, the teacher will read The Wall by Eve Bunting with the purpose of focusing on asking important questions. The students and the teacher will then categorize the questions according to the criteria for each. Materials When you read the story ahead of time, write any questions that pop into your head on post-it notes and have them available. Provide large pieces of paper and post-its for students, and locate enough copies of the book The Wall for partners. Provide a piece of paper for each group of four students. Prepare a piece of chart paper titled QUESTIONS with different columns of categories: Questions that are answered in the text Questions that I have to make an inference to answer Questions that are not important to understanding the story. Questions that require research to answer Questions about the author’s style Questions that clear up confusion Objectives: Students will ask questions before, during, and after reading. Students will categorize important vs. interesting questions with a focus on important questions. Procedure Explain that good readers ask questions before, during, and after reading to help them understand a story better. â€Å"Today, we’re going to focus on asking questions. † Present the book The Wall to the students and say, â€Å"I will read the title, and the back cover and look at the illustrations and think of as many questions as I can. These are the questions that I have before reading. † Read your prepared post-it notes to the students. Read the story to the children and think aloud, asking questions while reading. Stress that these are the questions you have during reading. Read your prepared post-it notes to the students. When you have finished reading the story, ask questions that pop into your head and stress that these are the questions that you have after reading. Read your prepared post-it notes to the students. Take your questions on post-its, think aloud, and categorize them in the appropriate column according to the type of question that you asked. The students partner-read and use post-its on pages where they have a question. Have partners narrow their questions down to two questions. Then have the partners share their questions with another paired group. The groups of four students choose one of their questions and write it on a larger piece of paper. Gather all students and have them share their questions. With help from the class, have students categorize their questions. Discuss the questions that are important vs. interesting, and have students focus on the important questions.  © 2000-2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Original URL: http://www. teachervision. fen. com/lesson-plan/reading-comprehension/48697. html Asking Pre-Reading Questions Grade Levels: 3 – 5 Lesson Summary This is a language arts lesson for students in grades 3-5. Students will learn about asking questions before reading and will make predictions based on the discussion of the questions. Students should be able to differentiate between a question and a statement, generate questions, and work in cooperative, heterogeneous groups. Objectives Students will brainstorm prior knowledge about the topic of a text Students will make predictions about the text by asking effective â€Å"before† reading questions in order to improve our reading comprehension. Key Understandings Asking and discussing questions will improve our comprehension of the text. Good readers ask questions before they read. Materials Two narrative texts Pre-reading Show Rubric Pledge Procedure Select two narrative texts, one will be used to demonstrate the â€Å"before reading† questioning strategy, the other will be used for guided practice. It may be easier to choose two texts by the same author or two texts of the same genre. Discuss the ways in which a pre-game show and asking questions before, during, and after reading are similar. Good readers are like sports casters. Just as sports casters discuss the sports event before, during, and after the game, good readers ask and discuss questions before, during, and after reading. This improves comprehension, or understanding, of the text. You may say something such as, â€Å"Who has watched a football, basketball, or baseball game on television? Sports casters help us understand the game by discussing it. They discuss the game with us before the game, during the game and after the game. Before the game, there is a pre-game analysis. That means that the announcer gives us background information about the game, teams, players, and coaches. This information can be used to make predictions about the outcome of the game. During the game, the announcers provide play-by-play coverage. They discuss important or controversial plays to help us understand what’s going on in the game and to explain how certain plays may affect the outcome of the game. They even provide replays of the most important events of the game to make sure we remember them. Finally, after the game, announcers interview the coaches and players to get different perspectives about how the game was played. They review the highlights of the game, confirm or disprove their predictions, and discuss the implications of the outcome of the game. † Tell students they are going to focus on asking questions before they begin reading a text. If possible, show a video clip of a pre-game sports cast. Use the analogy of a pre-game show and before reading questions to help students ask effective â€Å"before† reading questions. As you generate questions for each topic. Spend some time wondering about the answers and making predictions about the book. Write your predictions about the book in a separate column. Identify a purpose for reading the text. Narrative = for literary experience/enjoyment Expository = for information Functional = to perform a task/follow directions. Examine the cover illustration and read the title, modeling how to ask questions. Write the questions on chart paper or on an overhead projector. Look at the author and model how to generate questions. Activate background knowledge by taking a picture walk with students. Cover the print with sticky notes, and think aloud as you model how to generate questions, make predictions, and build vocabulary by carefully examining and discussing the illustrations in the text. Ask questions about the setting, characters, events, and genre of the book. Pre-Game Show Questions Before Reading Predictions Team A vs. Team B What teams are playing? What do we know about these teams? Where are they from? Have we ever seen either team play? In your opinion, are they skilled? Is one team better than the other? Title of Story/Cover What topic might this story be about? What do we already know about this topic? Have we read any other books about this topic? Do we have any experience related to this topic? Where and when did we have the experience? Coach Who is the coach? What do we know about the coach? What teams has he/she coached in the past? What is his/her coaching style? Author Who is the author? Who is the illustrator? What books have he/she written or illustrated in the past? Can we describe the style of the author/illustrator? Have I ever read other texts by this author? If so, what do I remember about those texts? Stadium Where is the game being played? Who has the home field advantage? What are the current weather conditions? How will the weather conditions affect the game? Setting Where and when does the story take place? Is the place/time familiar or unfamiliar to us? Have we read any other stories with a similar setting? Players Who are the key players? What positions do they play? What are their skills? Characters Who are the main characters? What role might they play in the story? Can we predict some of their character traits by examining the illustrations? Plays What plays are the coaches likely to run? Events What events may take place in this story? Rules/Principles of Game What are the rules of the game? What are winning strategies? Genre of Text What genre of story is this? (fairytale, folktale) Have we read other stories of the same genre? What are the characteristics of this genre? Tell students that the class will read the story together tomorrow, and learn to ask new questions while they are reading to help understand the story. Guided practice Give students the opportunity to practice writing and discussing some â€Å"before† reading questions for a new story. Place students in 6 groups and have each group record or role play a â€Å"pre-reading show† for the new book, just as sports casters broadcast a pre-game show. 1. title/cover 2. author/illustrator 3. setting 4. characters 5. events 6. genre of literature Select student leaders to guide each groups through the process of examining the cover of the new story and taking a picture walk. Allow groups to discuss their topic. Students should generate two of their own â€Å"before reading† questions on their topic, and then share their questions and provide feedback to each other. Have groups include information from their prior knowledge and personal experience as they discuss the â€Å"before reading† questions, and have them discuss the possible answers and make predictions about the book. After each student has had the opportunity to formulate and write two questions, jigsaw the groups to form TV crews for a â€Å"pre-reading† show. Each TV crew should have six students, one student from each group, 1-6. Review the parts of the rubric. Provide a time limit for each TV show, and tell students that each show should include: an introduction of the members of the TV crew slogan, jingle, or music a discussion of their prior knowledge about the topic a discussion of each member’s questions predictions about the book from each member Give groups the opportunity to practice asking and discussing their questions before role playing or videotaping their show. If time permits, allow students to make larger visual aids to display during the discussion. â€Å"Microphones† can be made quickly from rolling paper into tubes. Sharing Ideas Distribute rubrics to the class. Allow students to score each TV crew as they present. Independent Practice Have students think of a younger child that they will spend time with this week. Have them think of a book that they can read to the child. Have students use some of the â€Å"before reading† questioning strategies they learned to help the younger child understand the story. Students can use this questions framework worksheet to help them with questions to ask before reading, and help the child make predictions. The worksheet reminds students to ask questions about the title and cover, author and illustrator, setting, characters, events and genre. Assessment Each group will be assessed using the scores from the presentation rubric, scored by their peers and teacher.  © 2000-2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Running Records Page Description: A running record is a way to assess a student’s reading progress by systematically evaluating a student’s oral reading and identifying error patterns. This template will help you track your students’ oral reading accuracy. Take advantages from kids that love harry potter Book Covers from Around the World: Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban Page Description: Enjoy comparing and contrasting colorful cover art for J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban with this printable handout. Discuss the differences in interpretations from around the world with your students. Grade Levels: 2 – 7 Analyzing a Book Character Page Description: This chart of questions will help students analyze the cover art of a book. Use this worksheet when talking about the different cover art on each international edition of the Harry Potter books. Grade Levels: 3 – 8 Literacy Glossary Page 1 of 2 Accuracy Rate: This is the rate, shown as a percent, at which students accurately read the text. Concept Map: A concept map is a type of graphic organizer which allows students to consider relationships among various concepts. Often students are encouraged to draw arrows between related concepts enclosed in oval or other shapes. Error Rate: This is a ratio of errors to words in the text. Fluency: The rate and accuracy with which a person reads. Fluency results from practicing reading skills often and with a high rate of success. Formative Assessment: These tests are ongoing and based on the curriculum, providing a way to monitor student progress. They can be used to place students in groups, based on instructional needs. Frustrational Level: This is the level at which students are unable to read with adequate comprehension. Genre: A genre is a particular type of literature, such as narratives, poetry, dramas, or fables. Independent Level: This is the level at which students can read without assistance. Materials at this level should be chosen for independent reading, or fluency practice. Independent Reading Inventories: An informal formative assessment that provides graded word lists and passages designed to assess the oral reading and listening comprehension. Insertion: In a running record or informal reading inventory, this is a miscue in which students add another word when reading printed text. For example, if the sentence is: â€Å"The dog played,† the student reads: â€Å"The happy dog played. † Instructional Level: This is the level at which students can read with assistance from the teacher. Materials at this level should be chosen for reading instruction. Metacognition: This is thinking about one’s own thinking, or being aware of one’s own learning. When students are aware of how they think and learn, they can be taught to regulate their thought and learning processes. Omission: In a running record or informal reading inventory, this is a miscue in which students do not read a word or words in the printed text. For example, if the sentence is: â€Å"The sky was bright blue,† the student reads: â€Å"The sky was blue. † Onset: The part of a syllable that comes before the vowel of a syllable. The onset of the word box is /b/. Phoneme: the smallest unit of sound. It distinguishes one word from another (e. g. , man and fan are distinguished by the initial phoneme). Phonemic Awareness: This is a type of phonological awareness that involves the awareness and manipulation of individual sounds. Phonological Awareness: The auditory awareness of sounds, words, and sentences. The understanding that speech is composed of sentences made up of words. Words are comprised of syllables, and syllables are comprised of phonemes. Qualitative Data: Qualitative data consist of verbal or graphic descriptions of behavior and experience resulting from processes of observation, interpretation, and analysis. It is often comprehensive, holistic, and expansive. Qualitative Tools: These are tools that produce qualitative data consisting of verbal or graphic descriptions of behavior and experience resulting from processes of observation, interpretation, and analysis. Quantitative Data: Quantitative data consist of information represented in the form of numbers that can be analyzed by means of descriptive or inferential statistics. It is often precise and narrow data. Reading Conferences: Conferences conducted by teachers during independent reading time provide an opportunity to meet with a student to assess progress, to note reading strategies that are being used, monitor books being read, and to provide guidance in developing reading strategies. Rime: The part of a syllable that consists of its vowel and any consonant sounds that come after it. The rime of the word box is /ox/. Scaffolding: A scaffold is a supporting framework. Scaffolded learning is a teaching strategy that helps support students in their learning when they may have difficulties. A goal of scaffolded learning is to have students use a particular strategy independently. Screening Tests: These tests provide information that serves as a baseline. They are usually given to determine the appropriate starting place for instruction. Self-Correction: In a running record or informal reading inventory, this is a miscue in which students do not read a word or words correctly, but return to the text and read the word or words correctly. Self-Correction Rate: This is the ratio of self-corrections to errors when reading the text. Sound-Print Connection: Understanding the relationship between print and sound. Substitution: In a running record or informal reading inventory, this is a miscue in which students replace the printed word with another word. For example, if the sentence is: â€Å"She said, ‘No,'† the student reads: â€Å"She shouted, ‘No. ‘† Summative Assessment: These tests are usually given at the end of a unit or at the end of the year. They assess a student’s strengths and weaknesses over a period of time.

Pro Legalization of Marijuana essays

Pro Legalization of Marijuana essays In the early 1900's Americans realized that alcohol and other types of drugs popular at the time were being abused and thought it may be a good idea to criminalize their use to stop the problems that their use and abuses caused. Legislation was introduced and made into laws, outlawing alcoholic beverages on January 29th, 1920, Marijuana in 1937, cocaine, and other mind altering drugs. It took our government 13 years to admit that these laws were a total failure and reversed most of them. I think it is time to change the remaining failing prohibition laws and let the tax payers decide for themselves what to consume. I believe in the theory of legalizing freedom. I don't believe in the government protecting me from myself. For some unknown reason they decided to keep nicotine legal in the forms of cigarettes, cigars, pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, and snuff tobacco. Our government decided that they could create new taxes on these drugs since they may not have been aware of their dangers and habit forming tendencies. These new taxes could help pay for all the new federal government jobs that were created. Caffeine the active drug found in coffee and soft drinks was also ignored. Our government opened new federal branches of governments called The Federal Prohibition Agents and later the ATF, the Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms Bureau. Supply and demand have always controlled these drugs. Demand was high and the tax paying citizens were furious that a few decided for the rest that they could no longer have the freedom to consume these mind altering drugs. Alcohol was already being produced in stills in back yards around the country and occasionally someone got sick or even died from bad alcohol. Marijuana and cocaine were mostly used by either the rich or the minorities whereas alcohol was by far the drug of choice at the time. It didn't take long before ...

Floating Spinach Disks Photosynthesis Demonstration

Floating Spinach Disks Photosynthesis Demonstration Watch spinach leaf disks rise  and fall in a baking soda solution in response to photosynthesis. The leaf disks intake carbon dioxide from a baking soda solution and sink to the bottom of a cup of water. When exposed to light, the disks use carbon dioxide and water to produce oxygen and glucose. Oxygen released from the leaves forms tiny bubbles that cause the leaves to float. Photosynthesis Demonstration Materials You can use other leaves for this project besides spinach. Ivy leaves or pokeweed or any smooth-leaf plant work. Avoid fuzzy leaves or areas of leaves that have large veins. fresh spinach leavessingle hole punch or a hard plastic strawbaking soda (sodium bicarbonate)liquid dishwashing detergentplastic syringe (no needle, 10  ccs or larger)clear cup or glasslight source (bright sunlight works or you can use an artificial light) Procedure Prepare a bicarbonate solution by mixing 6.3 grams (about 1/8 teaspoon) baking soda in 300 milliliters of water. The bicarbonate solution acts as a source of dissolved carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.In a separate container, dilute a detergent solution by stirring a drop of dishwashing liquid in about 200 milliliters of water.Fill a cup partly full with the baking soda solution. Add a drop of the detergent solution to this cup. If the solution forms suds, add more baking soda solution until you stop seeing bubbles.Use the hole punch or straw to punch ten to 20 disks from your leaves. Avoid the edges of the leaves or major veins. You want smooth, flat disks.Remove the plunger from the syringe and add the leaf disks.Replace the plunger and slowly depress it to expel as much air as you can without crushing the leaves.Dip the syringe in the baking soda/detergent solution and draw in about 3 ccs of liquid. Tap the syringe to suspend the leaves in the solution.Push the plunger to expel e xcess air, then place your finger over the end of the syringe and pull back on the plunger to create a vacuum. While maintaining the vacuum, swirl the leaf disks in the syringe. After 10 seconds, remove your finger (release the vacuum).You may wish to repeat the vacuum procedure two to three more times to ensure the leaves take up carbon dioxide from the baking soda solution. The disks should sink to the bottom of the syringe when they are ready for the demonstration. If the disks do not sink, use fresh disks and a solution with a higher concentration of baking soda and a bit more detergent.Pour the spinach leaf discs into the cup of baking soda/detergent solution. Dislodge any disks that stick to the side of the container. Initially, the disks should sink to the bottom of the cup.Expose the cup to light. As the leaves produce oxygen, bubbles forming on the surface of the disks will cause them to rise. If you remove the light source from the cup, the leaves eventually will sink.If you return the disks to the light, what happens? You can experiment with the intensity and duration of the light and its wavelength. If you would like to set up a control cup, for comparison, prepare a cup containing water with diluted detergent and spinach leaf disks that have not been infiltrated with carbon dioxide.

Management communication - memo Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Management communication - memo - Assignment Example It is an inter-level choice because of one heading and use of white space to stress points. It is also an extra-level choice because of using information displays of green blocks with information being stressed the bottom of the document. The document has used a framework of imaginary columns to merge graphic elements. The document can be improved utilizing headings to set points, using more than one font, as well as color moderation (Glushko & McGrath, 2008). Page Design 3: It is within the intra-level of design because of the use of different fonts and sizes, some in italics and others in bold. It is also an inter-level choice because of the different headings of different fonts and sizes. The document uses white space to accentuate points. It is also an extra-level choice because of using a colored picture at the centre of the document, and four other graphical pictures, which are black and white, evenly distributed within the document. The document is within the supra-level of document design because of the paper size change, grids that delineate the look of every section of the document. The document can be improved by utilizing one or two fonts, as well as using color highlights (Garcia, 2007). Page Design 4: It is within the intra-level of design because of the use of one type of font in bold. It is an inter-level choice because of the dissimilar headings of different sizes. The document utilizes white space to highlight points. It is also an extra-level choice because of using a colored picture placed at the bottom center of the document. It is also within the supra-level of document design because of the, color formats, grids that describe the look of every section of the document. The document can be improved by using two fonts or less and putting important elements in the top left and lower right quadrants of the page (Carliner et. al.,